Fabrication of electrically active films based on multiple layers

ABSTRACT

A continuous film of desired electrical characteristics is obtained by successively printing and annealing two or more dispersions of prefabricated nanoparticles.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No.12/104,902 filed on Apr. 17, 2008, which claims priority to and thebenefits of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. Nos. 60/923,984, filed onApr. 18, 2007, and 60/991,510, filed on Nov. 30, 2007, the entiredisclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to thin-film materials, their fabrication,and devices made therefrom; and in particular to graded andmulti-junction thin-film semiconductor structures.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Thin-film technologies are currently being developed for the purpose ofreducing the cost of semiconductor devices, in particular photovoltaic(PV) cells. Whereas conventional solar cells are made of slices of solidcrystalline silicon wafers, which have thicknesses of typically a fewhundred microns, thin-film materials can be directly deposited onto asubstrate to form layers of ˜2 μm or less, resulting in lower materialas well as lower manufacturing costs. Moreover, thin-film technologiesallow for monolithic integration, i.e. the in situ creation ofelectrical connections, which further reduces production costs.

Thin-film materials include cadmium-telluride (CdTe), copper indiumdiselenide (CIS) and variants thereof, amorphous silicon, andpolycrystalline silicon (<50 μm). In recent years, technical progresshas occurred particularly in thin-film technologies based on CdTe andCIS. Both materials have high absorptivities, so that most of theincident radiation can be absorbed within 1-2 μm of the film. Used asthe absorber layer, in which incoming photons create electron-holepairs, these materials can be paired with, for instance, a layer of CdS,to form heterojunctions, and sandwiched between front and back contactsto form a solar cell.

To gain widespread acceptance, thin-film PV cells must exhibit highconversion efficiencies of photon energy to electric current, andoperate reliably in an outdoor environment over many years, ideally noless than 30 years. Technologies based on CdTe and CIS have demonstratedlong-term stability; however, performance degradation has also beenobserved. Efficiencies of current thin-film devices reach 65% of thetheoretical maximum (75% in the laboratory), still lagging behind somemonocrystalline silicon and GaAs cells, which have demonstrated 90% oftheir ultimate achievable performance. Improvements in efficiency ofthin-film technologies can be achieved through multijunctions and gradedmaterials. For example, studies on CIS have revealed that doping withgallium, to form compounds referred to as CIGS and exhibiting gradientsin the concentrations of Ga and In, lead to better efficiencies.

The complexities of thin-film technologies, which are essential for highefficiencies, adversely affect cost and manufacturability, establishinga need for improved techniques—in particular low-cost techniquesamenable to practice with off-the-shelf equipment. Challenges to thedevelopment of low-cost and reliable CIGS and CdTe devices include thestandardization of equipment for layer deposition, absorber layershaving thicknesses less than 1 μm, and control of film uniformity overlarge areas.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In various embodiments, the present invention provides methods forfabricating a continuous film by successively printing and annealing twoor more dispersions of prefabricated nanoparticles. In particular, someembodiments of the invention facilitate manufacture of graded andmultijunction semiconductor films, which can be used in PV cells andother semiconductor devices. Since the method requires no vacuum, it ischeaper and more conveniently practiced than vacuum-based techniques.

Nanoparticles according to this invention are particles of specifiedelemental composition and no more than 100 nm, and preferably no morethan 20 nm, in diameter. Typical nanoparticles include metal-oxideparticles, which collectively form a powder. Some nanoparticlecompositions suitable for semiconductor thin films comprise two or moreof the chemical elements Cu, Ag, In, Ga, Al, Te, Se, S, Cd, and As. Itshould be stressed, however, that the invention is not limited to saidelements, but that the method generally applies to any composition ofnanoparticles suitable for dispersion, and subsequently printing. One ofthe advantages of techniques in accordance with the present inventionlies in the ability to optimize the composition of the thin film byproviding compositional control over the precursor nanoparticles. Thisfacilitates the fabrication of a continuous film comprised of layers ofspecified chemical composition, which allows for the compositionaloptimization of these layers, and, as a result thereof, for improvedcontrol over the electric characteristics of the film and, inparticular, over the variation of these characteristics throughout thethickness of the film.

Dispersions according to the invention include any (homogeneous) mixtureof nanoparticles and a suitable flowable carrier comprising solvents ordispersing agents, whether the mixture is a solution, a colloid, or asuspension. These dispersions of nanoparticles are termed “printingcompositions” or “nanoparticle-based inks” herein.

Methods according to the invention can be implemented using a variety ofprinting techniques and the corresponding printing equipment, including,but not limited to, techniques such as inkjet printing, pneumatic sprayprinting, screen printing, pad printing, laser printing, dot matrixprinting, thermal printing lithography, or 3D printing. This versatilitycontributes to feasibility and cost-effectiveness. Furthermore, thecomposition of the nanoparticles can vary through the various depositionand annealing steps. For example, in one embodiment of the invention,the different printable compositions comprise nanoparticles of the sameelements in different proportions, for example, the nanoparticles mayhave the formula CuIn_(1-x)Ga_(x)Se₂, wherein x varies between 0 and 1,resulting in a concentration gradient of at least one element (in theexample In and Ga) through the film.

Accordingly, in a first aspect, the invention provides a method offabricating a film, which includes the steps of providing a substrateand flowable printing compositions with different dispersions ofprefabricated nanoparticles, and successively printing and annealinglayers of these printing compositions into one continuous film. In someembodiments, two or more layers are successively printed before they areannealed. Further, in some embodiments an etching step precedesannealing. Some of the individual printed layers may have thicknessessmaller than 1 μm.

In certain embodiments, the printing compositions contain the same typesof nanoparticles in different proportions, or nanoparticles composed ofthe same elements in different proportions, so that the annealed layersform a film with a concentration gradient of at least one material. Inalternative embodiments, each printing composition includes differenttypes of nanoparticles. In preferred embodiments, the nanoparticles havea size no greater than 20 nm and a low size dispersity.

In some embodiments, the film includes a semiconductor material andinteracts electrically with the substrate. Moreover, this structure canbe complemented by an electrically conductive superstrate to form asemiconductor device. In a particular embodiment, the device is a solarcell.

In a second aspect, the invention provides flowable printingcompositions with a substantially viscosity-independent flow rate. Theseprinting compositions contain a carrier and a dispersion ofnanoparticles; the nanoparticles include Cu and/or Ag as a firstcomponent and Se, Te, and/or S as a second component. Additionally, theprinting compositions may contain In, Ga, and/or Al as a thirdcomponent.

It should be stressed that embodiments of methods in accordance with theinvention are not limited to the printing compositions described above.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The foregoing discussion will be understood more readily from thefollowing detailed description of the invention when taken inconjunction with the accompanying drawings.

FIG. 1 is a flow diagram detailing the steps of a method to manufacturea film by successive printing and annealing.

FIG. 2 schematically depicts a system and method for manufacturing thefilm in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 3A is a schematic elevational view of a representative solar cellmanufactured in accordance with the invention.

FIG. 3B is a schematic elevational view of a graded CIGS film,manufactured by first depositing all constituting layers and thenannealing once to produce a continuous film, and of a solar cell madetherefrom.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 1. Fabrication Method

Refer first to FIGS. 1 and 2, which illustrate, respectively, arepresentative process sequence 100 and operative equipment implementingembodiments of the present invention. The process sequence comprises thesteps detailed in the flow diagram of FIG. 1, utilizing the equipmentand resulting in the intermediate and final structures illustrated inFIG. 2. In a first step 110, a substrate 200 and a plurality of flowableprinting compositions comprising different dispersions of prefabricatednanoparticles, as further described below, are provided. A printingcomposition 202 a is selected for the first layer in step 112, and instep 114, this composition is printed onto the substrate 200 using aprinter 204. In some cases, which will be described below, an etch step116 is performed after printing. In an optional step 118, the depositedlayer is dried and annealed using a heat source 206 to form a continuousfilm 208. By “annealing” is meant heating of a deposited layer at asufficient temperature and for a sufficient time that the nanoparticlesfuse into a continuous layer of uniform composition. Whether annealingis performed after deposition of a particular layer depends on thespecifics of the printing composition, the layer thickness, and desiredfilm characteristics. In general, however, the composition will be driedbefore a subsequent composition is deposited thereon. Annealing source206 may be any suitable heat source, e.g., an oven, vacuum oven,furnace, IR lamp, laser, or hot plate, and suitable annealing times andtemperatures, which depend on nanoparticle size and composition as wellas ink composition, may be obtained without undue experimentation bymeans of calibration as described below in the context of printingequipment. Anneal temperatures are generally above 200° C.

The steps 112, 114, and optionally steps 116, 118, are repeated to printa second printing composition 202 b, which generally differs from thecomposition 202 a, resulting in a film 208 that now contains two layers.This repetition may involve the same printing and annealing equipment204, 206, in which case the new printing composition is substituted(e.g., in the form of a cartridge) in printer 204. Alternatively, theprocess sequence 100 may be carried out in a assembly-line configurationwith separate printing and annealing equipment dedicated to eachdeposition and annealing step. Utilizing the same equipment for multiplesteps may be more practical where numerous films are fabricated inparallel (i.e., the same steps are simultaneously performed on multiplesubstrates); while a line configuration may be preferred whereindividual substrates 200 are processed serially.

Steps 110-118 may (but need not) be repeated a plurality of times toform a film having three or more layers 202 a, 202 b, 202 c. Once again,a particular printing composition can be utilized once or more thanonce, although in the case of graded films, the composition will changeprogressively with each deposition step. After the last layer has beenprinted, an etching step 120 is again optional, but a final annealingstep 122 must take place, whether previous anneals 116 have beenperformed or not, to form a continuous final film 210 from the depositedlayers. The number of layers deposited and annealed in this way is atleast two, and is limited only by the desired thickness and compositionof the final film 210. Accordingly, while FIG. 2 illustrates themanufacturing of a film with three layers, this is merely forillustration.

Each layer may contain a single type of nanoparticle, in which casedifferent layers typically contain nanoparticles having differentchemical compositions; or alternatively (or in addition), each layer maycontain a plurality of nanoparticle types, in which case the same set ofnanoparticles may be used in different proportions in the differentlayers. In some embodiments of the invention, the method 100 is employedto produce a high-efficiency graded film by using a variety of printingcompositions with nanoparticles comprising the same elements, but indifferent proportions. For example, a CIGS film may be produced with thevarying chemical composition CuIn_(1-x)Ga_(x)Se₂, where x variesprogressively among successively deposited layers (i.e., successiveprinting compositions). For example, x may be the distance of a certainlocation within the film from a boundary surface of the film (e.g., thetop surface of the structure or the boundary surface in contact with thesubstrate), divided by the thickness of the film. Such films have beenmanufactured by means of chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and used as theabsorption layer in a PV cell with the gallium concentration increasingtowards a molybdenum back contact, resulting in a particularly highefficiency of 19.5%—a consequence of reduced back-surface recombinationdue to the quasi-electric field established by the concentration andcorresponding bandgap gradient. The method 100 provides an alternativeto the CVD process: using a suitable substrate, such as Mo-coveredglass, CuInSe₂ may be deposited for the first layer, followed byprinting compositions in which the Ga content is progressively (in alinear or nonlinear fashion) increased in each layer, until thecomposition of the nanoparticles is primarily CuGaSe₂. Once the layersare printed in the desired sequence, they are annealed to form ahigh-performance graded CIGS film. Other nanoparticle-based inks mayalso be introduced as intermediate layers to further tune the bandstructure of the material in order to optimize the performance of thecell. Techniques in accordance with the present invention offer theadditional advantage, compared with CVD, of avoiding the need for vacuumequipment.

In other embodiments of the invention, the printing compositionscomprise different types of nanoparticles. The method 100 can, forinstance, be used to manufacture a CdS/CdTe thin film. In general, theapproach of the invention can be applied to any material for which asuitable nanoparticle source is available.

2. Printing Equipment 204

For the implementation of the printing step 114, a variety ofwell-characterized printing processes can be used to advantage,including, but not limited to, inkjet printing, pneumatic spraying,screen printing, pad printing, laser printing, dot matrix printing,thermal printing, lithography, and 3D printing. Computer-controlledinkjet printers are readily available and particularly attractive forpractice of the invention because of the level of control they provide.A commercially available inkjet printer can be used with little or nomodification to print nanoparticle-based inks (the printingcompositions) as described herein. To avoid problems such as clogging ofthe printer head or other incompatibilities, the viscosities ofnanoparticle-based inks can be adjusted to those of inks produced by theprinter's manufacturer, as detailed below in the context of printingcompositions. The amenability of the method 100 to readily available,low-cost equipment, such as inkjet printers, constitutes one of itsadvantages.

To facilitate control over the thicknesses of the individual layers andthe film as a whole, the printer can be calibrated as follows. For eachprinting composition, a sequence of print runs is carried out, eachprint run involving a different number of printing passes. Drying andannealing are performed after each printing pass or at the end of a run.The thickness of the film resulting from each of the runs is different,and is determined via scanning electron microscopy (SEM) or transmissionelectron microscopy (TEM), or any other suitable technique. As a result,a layer having a desired thickness may be made by reference to thenumber of printing passes corresponding to that thickness. Similarcalibration techniques can be used to determine optimal annealingtemperatures and times for desired film properties.

3. Printing Compositions 202

Printing compositions in accordance herewith are flowable dispersions ofnanoparticles. Particulate precursor materials simplify compositionalcontrol for multi-component materials such as, for example, CIGS, sincekey components (e.g., Cu, In, Ga) can be precisely mixed in theprecursor powders. One method of fabricating these powders involvesmixing the constituent elements at the required ratios, dissolving themin acid to form an aqueous mixture, using hydroxide precipitation toform a gelatinous mixture of hydroxides of the elements, and drying themixture to obtain a fine powder of mixed oxides. Nanoparticle synthesiscan also be carried out using techniques described, for example, in U.S.Pat. No. 6,379,635 and co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. Nos.11/579,050 and 11/588,880, the entire disclosures of which are herebyincorporated by reference.

A method for producing CIGS nanoparticles of any desirable stoichiometryemploying a selenol compound is disclosed in U.S. ProvisionalApplication Ser. No. 60/991,510. Embodiments of the method involvedispersing at least a first portion of a nanoparticle precursorcomposition (comprising sources of at least one of Al, Ga, and/or In,and at least one of Cu, Ag, Zn, and/or Cd) in a solvent (e.g., along-chain hydrocarbon solvent); heating the solvent to a firsttemperature for an appropriate length of time; adding a selenol compoundto the solvent and heating the solvent; adding a second portion of thenanoparticle precursor composition to the reaction mixture; heating themixture to a second temperature higher than the first temperature overan appropriate length of time; and maintaining the temperature for up to10 hours. Once the particles have been formed, the surface atoms of theparticles will typically be coordinated to a capping agent, which cancomprise the selenol compound employed in the method. If a volatileselenol compound is used, this capping agent can be driven off withheating to yield ‘naked’ nanoparticles amenable to capping with othercoordinating ligands and further processing. Examples 1 and 2 providefurther details regarding the implementation of this method:

Example 1

Cu(I) acetate (1 mmol) and In(III) acetate (1 mmol) are added to a cleanand dry RB-flask. Octadecene ODE (5 mL) is added the reaction mixtureheated at 100° C. under vacuum for 30 mins. The flask is back-filledwith nitrogen and the temperature raised to 140° C. 1-octane selenol isinjected and the temperature falls to 120° C. The resulting orangesuspension is heated with stirring and a transparent orange/red solutionis obtained when the temperature has reached 140° C. This temperature ismaintained for 30 minutes, then 1M tri-octyl-phoshine selenide TOPSe (2mL, 2 mmol) is added dropwise and the solution heated at 160° C. The PLis monitored until it reaches the desired wavelength, after which it iscooled and the resulting oil washed with methanol/acetone (2:1) 4-5times and finally isolated by precipitation with acetone.

Example 2 Large Scale Production

A stock solution of TOPSe was prepared by dissolving Se powder (10.9,138 mmol) in TOP (60 mL) under nitrogen. To dry, degassed ODE was addedCu(I) acetate (7.89 g, 64.4 mmol) and In(III) acetate (20.0 g, 68.5mmol). The reaction vessel was evacuated and heated at 140° C. for 10min, backfilled with N₂ and cooled to room temp. 1-Octane selenol (200mL) was added to produce a bright orange suspension. The temperature ofthe flask was raised to 140° C. and acetic acid distilled from thereaction at 120° C. On reaching 140° C. the TOPSe solution was addeddropwise over the course of 1 hour. After 3 hours the temperature wasraised to 160° C. The progress of the reaction was monitored by takingaliquots from the reaction periodically and measuring the UV/Visible andphotoluminescence spectra. After 7 hours the reaction was cooled to roomtemperature and the resulting black oil washed with methanol. Methanolwashing was continued until it was possible to precipitate a fine blackmaterial from the oil by addition of acetone. The black precipitate wasisolated by centrifugation, washed with acetone and dried under vacuum.Yield: 31.97 g.

To optimize particle properties or the selection of suitabledispersants, the nanoparticles can be characterized with respect totheir composition, size, and charge by conventional techniques includingx-ray diffraction (XRD), UV/Vis/Near-IR spectrometry, scanning ortransmission electron microscopy (SEM/TEM), energy dispersive x-raymicroanalysis (EDAX), photoluminescence spectrometry, and/or elementalanalysis. Inductively coupled plasma atomic-emission spectroscopy(ICPAES) analysis of representative Cu/In/Se core particles, prepared ina 1-octane selenol capping agent which was subsequently removed,provided the following suitable nanoparticle composition: Cu 16.6%; In36.6%; Se 48.3%, corresponding to Cu_(1.00), In_(1.22), Se_(2.34), and aCu/In ratio of 0.82.

In preferred embodiments of this invention, the nanoparticles haveaverage sizes not greater than 20 nm, and low size dispersities ofaround ±2 nm or less. Conformance to these constraints facilitatesprinting of thin films with control over the band structure through thefilm, resulting in high conversion efficiencies. Moreover, low sizedispersities allow for good packing of the nanoparticles, and uniformmelting temperature of the nanoparticle films, which contributes toproper film formation.

The nanoparticles are dispersed in a carrier comprising solvents, suchas toluene, and dispersing agents to form the printing composition. Thedispersion may take the form of a solution, colloid, or suspension,generally depending on the particle size, and may have the consistencyof a liquid, paste, or other viscoelastic material, as long as it isflowable. Its viscosity should be within the range from 0.158×10¹¹ cP to2.3×10¹¹ cP.

In embodiments in which water-based inks are formed with non-solublenanoparticles, surface area and charge of the particles drive theselection of dispersants suitable for ink formulation. For example, inpigment-based inkjet printing, the overall charge the particles acquire(i.e., the zeta potential) in the medium in which they are dispersedshould be sufficiently high to ensure dispersion stability; butexcessive dispersion stability can result in flocculation and consequentclogging of the printer head. To ensure the jetting potential of the inkthrough the nozzle, the average agglomerate size should be minimized. Inthe printing industry, it is generally recognized that particle sizes ofover 500 nm may cause plugging of the inkjet nozzles, compromising printquality.

To mitigate print-head blocking concerns, nanoparticles can be coated inwater-solubilizing capping agents, such as a mercaptocarboxylic acid(e.g., mercaptoacetic acid). For example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,114,038, theentire disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference, teacheshow to exchange the coating groups of water-insoluble, pyridine-cappednanocrystals with a large excess of neat mercaptocarboxylic acid toobtain water-soluble capped nanocrystals. In brief, the pyridine-cappednanocrystals are precipitated with hexanes and centrifuged; the residueis dissolved in neat mercaptoacetic acid and incubated at roomtemperature for at least six hours; chloroform is added to precipitatethe nanocrystals and wash away excess thiol; and the nanocrystals areagain centrifuged, washed with chloroform and hexane, and dried withargon. The viscosity of the printing composition (nanoparticle-basedink) is desirably adjusted to achieve plastic flow behavior, i.e., whereviscosity is essentially independent of flow rate. This facilitatescontrol over coating characteristics. Capping agents needed forsolubilization or suspension can be removed to stop the formation ofcarbon deposits within the film. In some cases, this removal occursnaturally as a result of annealing at elevated temperatures, but if doesnot, it can be aided by a prior etching step 116, 120.

4. Applications

Semiconductor thin-film structures manufactured according to the methodillustrated in FIG. 1 can be used in photovoltaic cells, LEDs,transistors, and other semiconductor devices. FIG. 3A illustrates arepresentative structure of a solar cell with a CIGS absorber film. Thesubstrate 305 comprises molybdenum on glass, and the submicron Mo layeralso provides the back contact of the cell 300. The absorber film 307comprises a series of annealed layers of CIGS, and exhibits increasingGa and decreasing In concentration towards the Mo contact 300. This filmcan be manufactured by printing and annealing each layer consecutively.Alternatively, as illustrated in FIG. 3B, which exemplifies the In andGa contents of individual layers, it can be manufactured by firstdepositing all the layers, and subsequently fusing these layers into onecontinuous film in one annealing step. A buffer layer 312 forms thejunction with the CIGS film. Conventionally, this junction comprisesCdS. However, due to environmental and health concerns associated withCd, preferred PV cells are cadmium-free, using ZnS, ZnO(O,OH), or In₂S₃instead. Accordingly, a ZnO layer 314 over a glass cover 316 providesthe superstrate of the cell 300. The performance of aZnO/ZnO(O,OH)/CIGS/Mo cell can be improved or optimized by introducinglayers of other semiconductor materials within the absorber film 307.CIGS variants (e.g., as shown in the following Table 1) in which Se isreplaced by S or Te, Cu by Ag, or In or Ga by Al, for example, can beused to manipulate the energies of the valence and conduction bands toaid in electron-hole capture. Embodiments of the invention provide aconvenient means to integrate these additional layers. Moreover, ifnanoparticle sources are available for the junction layer and/or thesubstrate or superstrate, these layers can likewise be integrated intothe device by printing and annealing, as long as none of the requiredannealing temperatures is detrimental to the other layers within thedevice.

TABLE 1 Low Bandgap High Bandgap Material E_(g) (eV) Material E_(g) (eV)CuInSe₂ 1.0  CuAlSe₂ 2.71 CuInTe₂ 1.0-1.15 CuInS₂ 1.53 CuGaTe₂ 1.23CuAlTe₂ 2.06 CuGaSe₂ 1.70 CuGaS₂ 2.50 AgInSe₂ 1.20 AgGaSe₂ 1.80 AgGaTe₂1.1-1.3  AgAlSe₂ 1.66 AgAlTe₂ 0.56 AgInS₂ 1.80 AgGaSe₂ 1.80 AgGaS₂ 2.55AgAlS₂ 3.13

Although the present invention has been described with reference tospecific details, it is not intended that such details should beregarded as limitations upon the scope of the invention, except as andto the extent that they are included in the accompanying claims.

1. A flowable printing composition comprising a carrier and a dispersionof nanoparticles therein, the nanoparticles comprising first and secondcomponents, the first component comprising at least one of Cu or Ag, andthe second component comprising at least one of Se, Te, or S, thecomposition having a viscosity substantially independent of flow rate.2. The printing composition of claim 1, wherein the first componentcomprises Cu or Ag, but not both.
 3. The printing composition of claim1, wherein the second component comprises exactly one of the elementsSe, Te, or S.
 4. The printing composition of claim 1, wherein thenanoparticles comprise a third component comprising at least one of In,Ga, or Al.
 5. The printing composition of claim 4, wherein thenanoparticles have the formula CuIn_(1-x)Ga_(x)Se₂ where x variesbetween 1 and
 0. 6. The printing composition of claim 1, wherein thecomposition is adapted for use in a printing method selected from thegroup consisting of inkjet printing, pneumatic spraying, screenprinting, pad printing, laser printing, dot matrix printing, thermalprinting, lithography and 3D printing.
 7. The printing composition ofclaim 1, wherein the nanoparticles have an average size not greater than20 nm.
 8. The printing composition of claim 1, wherein the nanoparticleshave a size dispersity of ±2 nm or less.
 9. The printing composition ofclaim 1, wherein the carrier comprises at least one of a solvent or adispersing agent.
 10. The printing composition of claim 9, wherein thesolvent is an organic solvent.
 11. The printing composition of claim 10,wherein the solvent is toluene.
 12. The printing composition of claim 1,wherein the dispersion has a form selected from the group consisting ofa solution, a colloid and a suspension.
 13. The printing composition ofclaim 1, wherein the composition has a viscosity in the range from0.158×10¹¹ cP to 2.3×10¹¹ cP.
 14. The printing composition of claim 1,wherein the nanoparticles are coated with a capping agent.
 15. Theprinting composition of claim 14, wherein the capping agent is a watersolubilising capping agent.
 16. The printing composition of claim 14,wherein the capping agent is mercaptoacetic acid.
 17. A flowableprinting composition comprising a carrier and a dispersion ofnanoparticles therein, the nanoparticles each comprising first, second,and third components, the first component comprising at least one of Cuor Ag, the second component comprising at least one of Se, Te, or S, andthe third component comprising at least one of In, Ga, or Al, thecomposition having a viscosity substantially independent of flow rate.18. The printing composition of claim 17, wherein the first componentcomprises Cu or Ag, but not both.
 19. The printing composition of claim17, wherein the second component comprises exactly one of the elementsSe, Te, or S.